Conflict and Agricultural Policy Failures

In the nineteen eighties, images of starving children in Ethiopia shocked the world and triggered one of the largest humanitarian responses in history . But behind the famine was a much deeper story of drought, civil war, dictatorship, forced resettlement and the politics of food . It was a disaster that changed Ethiopia , transformed global charity , and raised hard questions about how relief can save lives while being entangled in conflict. Learn more about the nineteen eighty four nineteen eighty five Ethiopian famine on this episode of Everything Everywhere Daily This episode is sponsored by Quince . Summer's here and if you happen to live in a place with actual seasons as I do, that means wearing entirely different clothes. Wool sweaters are great when the temperatures drop, but they're not the best option when you're outside in the sun. 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If you were around in the nineteen eighties, you probably remember the images from Ethiopia of the great famine that devastated the country. In response, some of the world's greatest celebrity benefit events were held, raising millions of dollars in aid. However, the story that was told about the famine was very simplistic. It was framed as a natural disaster caused by drought There was a drought, and the drought did play a big role in the famine, but the story behind it was much more complicated than was told at the time . Likewise, many of the highly publicized relief efforts were not nearly as impactful as many people assumed. The story of the famine actually begins in the early nineteen seventies. Ethiopia had been ruled for decades by emperor Heli Salasi, who was both a modernizer and an autocrat. His government tried to centralize power, build a modern state, and maintain Ethiopia's independence and prestige, but the country remained deeply unequal. Landownership was concentrated in the hands of nobles, the church and regional elites. Most Ethiopians were poor peasants, often paying rent or tributes to landlords. The state was weak in rural areas, but oppressive when it needed taxes, soldiers or obedience. Ethiopia had already suffered a major famine in the early nineteen seventies, especially in the Wolo and Tigray regions. The famine of nineteen seventy two to nineteen seventy four exposed the weakness of Hali Salasi's regime. Tens of thousands of people died while the imperial government was slow to respond and in some cases tried to conceal the crisis to protect its image. This discredited the emperor at exactly the moment when Ethiopia was facing rising inflation, student protests, military disatisfsaction , labor unrest, and demands for land reform. In nineteen seventy four, a committee of military officers known as the Durg , which just means committee or council in Am Herrick gradually took power . At first, the Revolution didn't have a single clear leader. It was a collection of junior and mid level officers who claimed to be acting on behalf of the people against corruption, feudalism, and imperial misrule. Halle Salas i was deposed in September of nineteen seventy four and later died in custody, almost certainly under suspicious circumstances. The Durg soon moved sharply towards the Soviets and a Soviet style government. It declared Ethiopia a socialist state and nationalized land and major industries. The most important figure to emerge from this period was Mengistu Hilli Meriam, who consolidated power through pur ges, executions, and political terror. By the late nineteen seventies, Mengistu had become Ethiopia's dominant ruler. The Durg did enact one briefly popular policy, land reform . In theory, this ended the old landlord system and gave land to those who worked it. However, peasants didn't get to own the land that they worked. Instead, Mengistu took a page from the Joseph Stalin playbook and organiz ed farmers through peasant associations, quotas, state procurement systems, and political surveillance. Over time, the government's control of agricultural production became a factor that worsened food security. The Durg also inherited and intensified Ethiopia's internal ethnic conflicts. Ethiopia was not a simple, unified nation state. It was a multi ethnic empire like state with deep regional tensions . Erichya had been federated with Ethiopia after World War two and then annexed by Halle Salassi in nineteen sixty two, sparking an independent struggle. By the nineteen seventies and eighties, Ericharian guerrillas were fighting a major war against the Ethiopian state. Other insurgencies also emerged. In Tigray, the northernmost province of the country, the Tigray People's Liberation Front or TPLF began fighting the Derg. In Oromo areas, the Oromo Liberation Front challenged centralized rule. There were also rebellions in the Afar region and still other regional conflicts. These movements were not all identical , but many shared opposition to centralization, military rule, and the Derg's Marxist dictatorship . The Derg's early years were marked by extraordinary violence. During the Red Terror of the late nineteen seventies, the regime targeted suspected opponents, especially students, leftist rivals, and urban activists . Thousands, and quite probably tens of thousands of people were killed. Bodies were left in the streets as warnings. The Red Terror helped Mengistu eliminate rivals, but it also destroyed much of Ethiopia's educated civilian political class and deepened the regime's dependence on force . At the same time , Ethiopia fought the Agadin War against Somalia from nineteen seventy seven to nineteen seventy eight . Somalia had invaded the Agadin region, which was inhabited largely by ethnic Somal is. Ethiopia initially struggled, but massive Soviet and Cuban support helped the Durg defeat Somalia. This victory strengthened Mengistu's regime and locked Ethiopia firmly into the Soviet Bocl , and it militarized the Ethiopian state even further. By the early nineteen eighties, Ethiopia was one of the most heavily militarized, poor countries in the world. Large portions of state resources went to the army and military campaigns had devastated Northern Ethiopia. The famine that would take place was largely concentrated in Northern Ethiopia, particularly in the Tigray and Walo regions, although other regions were also affected to a lesser extent . These regions were already teetering on the edge of disaster. Rainfall was unreliable, soils were degraded in many places, population pressure was increas ing and rural households had few food reserves. But vulnerability is not the same as famine. Famine happens when stress overwhelms coping mechanisms, and in Ethiopia, all those systems were being destroyed by war and government policy. Drought struck in the early nineteen eighties, with particularly severe dry periods in nineteen eighty three and nineteen eighty four. Crop production fell sharply, livestock died, grain prices rose, and peasants sold animals, tools, and household goods just to buy food. Once all of those assets were gone, families had nothing left. People began migrating in search of food, work or relief. The problem was that all of this was happening in a war zone . In Tigray and Ereitria, the government viewed many rural communities as politically suspect because guerrilla movements operated among them. The Derg Counter Insurgency Strategy often treated civilians as part of the enemy support system. Villages were attacked, crops were burned, livestock was seized, markets were disrupt ed, and movement was restricted. The Army's campaigns made it harder for farmers to plant, harvest, trade or even flee. Another major factor was the Durg's agricultural policy. The regime impos ed grain quotas and purchased grain at fixed prices. Peasants were often required to sell grain to the government at below market prices, reducing incentives to produce grain surpluses and weakening local markets . The government also emphasized collectivization and villagization, trying to reorganize peasants into planned villages and collective structures. These policies were ideologically driven and often coercive . They disrupted rural life and made farmers less able to respond flexibly to a crisis. The most notorious policy associated with the famine was resettlement . Beginning in earnest during the fam ine, the Derg moved hundreds of thousands of people from drought stricken northern areas to supposedly more fertile regions in the south and southwest. In principle, resettlement could have been a rational response to this problem . In practice it was brutal. People were moved against their will, families were separated, disease spread, and areas receiving the migrants were poorly prepared. Many people died during transport or after arrival. The policy also served counter insurgency goals, removing populations from rebel influenced areas weakened the social base of the insurgent movements. Villagization was another disruptive policy. The government pushed peasants into concentrated villages, claiming that this would make services easier to provide and agricultural modernization easier to manage. Relocation often placed farmers further away from their fields, like resettlement villages blurred the line between development policy and political control . While the Derg didn't create the drought, it helped turn drought into a catastrophe. Its wars wrecked production and trade, its counterinsurgency campaigns targeted the rural population, its control over food and movement prevented people from using traditional survival strategies. Its ideological agricultural policies weakened markets and food production . The outside world was slow to respond to what was happening. Ethiopia's government did not initially welcome full exposure of the crisis. The regime was preparing to celebrate the tenth anniversary of the revolution in nineteen eighty four and did not want famine to overshadow its image. International agencies had some knowledge of the growing disaster, but the crisis did not become a major western public issue until television images reached a mass audience. The turning point came in October of nineteen eighty four, when BBC journalist Michael Burke reported from Corum in Northern Ethiopia . His report showed starving children, overwhelmed feeding camps, and mass death. The footage shocked viewers in Britain and then around the world. Burke described the scene in language that became famous, and the report helped transformed Ethiopia from a distant crisis into a moral emergency in the West. The public response was enormous. Irish musician Bob Geldoff, moved by the BBC broadcast, helped organize Band Aid, a charity supergroup that recorded Do they Know It's Christmas in late nineteen eighty four. The song sold in massive numbers and raised millions for famine relief . In the United States, a similar effort produced We are the World by USA for Africa in nineteen eighty five . The largest event was live aid held on july thirteenth, nineteen eighty five with concerts in London and Philadelphia broadcast globally . It was one of the most famous charity events in history. These efforts raised huge sums of money and changed public awareness. For many people in the West, the Ethiopian famine was their first direct encounter with a global humanitarian crisis through real time mass media. The relief efforts did save lives. Food aid, emergency feeding centers, medical treatment, and cross border relief reduced mortality in many places. Without the Western response, the death toll would have almost certainly have been much higher. The media driven outpouring also pressured governments to act faster and more visibly than they other wise would have. However, the relief effort had serious limits and complications . Much of the aid had to pass through the Ethiopian government, which was itself a cause of the famine. The Dirg controlled ports, transportation, distribution networks, and access permissions. Aid agencies faced a harsh dilemma, cooperate with the regime and reach some starving people, or refuse cooperation and reach almost no one in government held areas. The Western public often understood the famine as a simple tragedy of hunger in Africa. The framing was emotionally powerful , but it was incomplete and sometimes misleading . Much of the messaging emphasized drought poverty and helplessness while saying less about dictatorship, forced relocation, and civil war. This made funding easier, but also flattened the political reality. It encouraged the idea that famine was primarily a natural African disaster rather than a man made crisis shaped by specific people. The Derg survived the famine, but it was weakened in the continuing war. Throughout the late nineteen eighties, the regime remained dependent on Soviet support . And when the Soviet Union began reducing foreign commitments under Mikhail Gorbachev, Mengistu's position deteriorated. In nineteen ninety one, Mengistu fled Ethiopia, the Durg collapsed, and a new government took power in Atis Ababa, and Eritria became independent in nineteen ninety three. As of the recording of this episode, Mengistu still lives in exile in Zimbabwe at the age of eighty nine . The famine's death toll remains debated , estimates vary widely often ranging from several hundred thousand